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INTRODUCTION
Present-day geography, primarily human geography is characterised by a plurality of techniques ( Okafor 2002). It is doubtful if in the background of geography (in excess of 2000 a long time), there have been multiplicity of investigate methodologies as we have now. As Okafor, (2000) quoting Cloke et al (1993) argued “in just human geography now, there is unparalleled liveliness to the engagement with concerns of technique and principle” The emergence of distinct techniques to the examine of geography according to Okafor (2008) is as a result of the search for ever better being familiar with of the spatial business of culture. Thus in an endeavor to get a better being familiar with of spatial phenomena, numerous techniques have been adopted. The dissatisfaction with a person tactic qualified prospects to experimentation and eventual adoption of yet another. This is what is referred to as paradigm shift in Geography. This paper, in essence, discusses the numerous paradigm shifts in Geography and specially the scientific technique as properly as its shortcomings which guide to the emergence of other techniques: the emergence of critical or radical or structuralism in geographical investigate and the emergence of other branches of Geography this sort of as Political Geography and the Geography of Religion.
PARADIGM Change IN GEOGRAPHY
Present-day Geography is also characterised by a range of educational institutions of assumed or paradigms. Khun (1972) argued that science is a system characterised by a culture generation of know-how which are separated by difficulties and solutions to a crisis and can guide to upheaval in just subject matter/disciplines. He defines, a paradigm as a universally regarded scientific accomplishment that for a time offer, design difficulties and solutions to a group of practitioners. Hagget (1977) defines paradigm as a sort of supermodel, a principle of scientific task and technique which regulates the researches of most geographers. Blunden et-at (1978) utilizing the background of geography identifies 4 styles of paradigm in geography. They are: Ecological Paradigm, Spatial Investigation Paradigm, Behavioural Paradigm and radical-Structural Paradigm. Ecological Paradigm is the oldest paradigm in Geography and it is linked with regional and descriptive Geography, with emphasis on the description of sites. The Spatial Investigation Paradigm is linked with the scientific technique in Geography and with it came a range of innovations in the willpower. These innovations incorporate the use of mathematical and statistical tactics, the formulation and screening of hypotheses. Arithmetic is use to build designs although studies is use for screening speculation (Okafor 2005)
SCIENTIFIC Method IN GEOGRAPHY
The Scientific Method is a person of the techniques that revolutionized observe in both equally Physical and Human Geography. The scientific technique is basically a post earth war II enhancement in Geography. Inspite of all criticism levied in opposition to the tactic in Human geography, it nonetheless stays very influential. The phrase, Scientific Method according to Okafor (2000), refers to a pattern of assumed rightly utilized in the manufacturing of know-how. It is the sensible framework of the system by which the search for reliable know-how innovations (Blunden, et all, 1985).The system of scientific technique consists of 7 principal phases, specifically issue identification, speculation formulation, investigate layouts, measurement, knowledge collection, knowledge investigation and empirical generalization (Nachmias and Nachmias 1976). The conclusion solution of adopting scientific rationalization is to offer a scientific rationalization which is a regulation dependent rationalization of serious phenomenon (Gueleke 1971) and a satisfactory answer to why and how dilemma (Harvey, 1969). A person of the outcomes of scientific technique in geography is the quantitative revolution which transpired in the nineteen fifties through to the sixties. This marked a rapid improve in the technique guiding Geographical investigate. The quantitative revolution led to a shift from a descriptive (ideographic) Geography to an empirical regulation building (nomothelic) Geography. The centrality of quantification and quantitative approaches is empirical screening of measurable variables or measurable attributes of phenomena (Abumere 2001). The quantitative revolution led to an enhanced use of statistical and mathematical tactics in geographical investigate. Some of the tactics incorporate: descriptive studies (to summarize knowledge) inferential studies (to predict, challenge and take a look at hypotheses) and mathematical equations (to build designs.) This is a person of the bases for the criticism of scientific technique in Human Geography.
Geography turned mechanistic and its assumptions were being based on economic rationality in human conduct and choice building. That is, Geographers are likely to concentrate on difficulties that are amenable to scientific investigation but of trivial significance. One more criticism is that it taken off the “human dimension” from a willpower that pleasure by itself on finding out the human and pure earth collectively. The numerous criticisms that followed quantitative revolution led to the emergence of the the examine Behavioural Geography in the sixties
. Behavioural geography emphasizes the significance of perception and cognition in choice building and in spatial conduct. The behaviouralists were being criticized for remaining unable to divorce its technique from that of Spatial Investigation Paradigm primarily the use quantitative technique and positivist philosophy. The inability of the Spatial Investigation and Behavioural paradigm to clarify social concerns this sort of as poverty, crime, and inequality gave increase to the radical-structural paradigm in the seventies .As from seventies, there started to emerge a shift in the aim of geographic examine.
The tactic that emerged was the Radical Geography or what is referred to as Structural or Critical geography which signaled the quest for social relevance in Geography. The aim of Radical Geography is not “room” the subject matter subject of Common Geography, somewhat, Radical Geography is concerned with human relevance in all geographical concerns that are not traditional to Geography. At the heart of radical geography is the strategy that spatial pattern or spatial structures (the problem of traditional geography) are actually reflections of social patterns or structures. As a result, spatial theories should really develop out of socio-spatial theories. Gentleman should really be at the centre of geographical studies and that the subject matter subject of geographical studies should really consist of those issues that impede man’s enhancement. This quest heralded the emergence of critical concerns this sort of as justice, spatial inequality, social deprivation, racism, gender concerns, funds accumulation and destruction of pure sources, disintegration of traditional societies, terrorism and other social pressing concerns in Human Geography.
Of significance to this paper is the difficulty of justice and spatial inequality. What is justice? Justice in Human Geography refers to territorial justice or spatial justice, that is, fairness in the spatial distribution of gains and burdens of culture (Okafor, 2008). Knox and Marston (2004) determine spatial justice as “the fairness in the distribution of a societies burdens and gains, having into account spatial variations in people’s demands and in their contribution to the manufacturing of wealth. In Nigeria, the issue of enhancement and integration revolve close to inefficiencies and inadequacies in the distributional system and access to amenities (education, health, industries etcetera) This is what Abumere (1987, 1998) describes as the distributional inequalities: the differential availability of the fruits of economic enhancement between populations in distinct Nigeria areal unit.In the education sector,for occasion, there is distributional inequality concerning north and south in the range of secondary educational institutions as revealed in
Table one Table one: North/South share in range of secondary educational institutions Location No of Educational facilities % North one,five hundred 27.70 South 3,915 72.thirty Overall 5,415 a hundred Resource: WAEC Once-a-year report, 1996. Table one reveals that out of the 5.415 WAEC regarded secondary educational institutions in Nigeria in 1998, only one,five hundred (27.7%) were being positioned in what is politically referred to as middle belt states of Kwara, Kogi, Niger, Benue, Plateau and the Federal Money Territory although the main Northern states were being remaining with only 488 (39.two%). On point out by point out distribution, Outdated Ondo point out (now Ondo and Ekiti states) experienced the greatest range of secondary educational institutions (395 or 7.29%) although Jigawa point out experienced the minimum (25 or .forty six%). This has been spelled out to be owing to socio-cultural and spiritual good reasons. (WAEC annual report, 1996)
Like in the situation of education, there are spatial disparities in the distribution of industrial institutions. These spatial disparities in the distribution of manufacturing industries have generally been spelled out in phrases of the need for valorization of raw agricultural products and solutions or the remedy of raw materials for export. The result of valorization means the establishment of manufacturing industries in regions where pure sources are uncovered. In spite of the successive enhancement strategies aimed at even distribution of industrial functions in all components of Nigeria, industrial functions are nonetheless concentrated in a few places (Ajayi 2003). Table two, reveals that out of two,355 manufacturing establishment in Nigeria in 1988, 1851 (78.60%) were being uncovered in the South although North account for 504 (21.forty%), Lagos region on your own experienced 768 (32.6%), Kano experienced 216 (nine.two%), Rivers and Imo states 212 each and every (nine.%) although states like Bauchi, Katsina and Jigawa experienced concerning -.3% industrial institutions. (Abumere, 1998) Table two: North/South Share in range of industries Location Variety of Industries % North 504 21.4 South 1851 seventy six.6 Overall 2355 a hundred. Resource: Abumere, 1998.
One more spot where spatial injustice is observed is in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria. A person explanation generally specified in the literature on the subject matter is geographical variation in pure sources endowment (Okafor, 2006). If this is true, it is envisioned that regions that are richly endowed are to be much more formulated and their people take pleasure in better everyday living but this is not the situation in Niger Delta. What then is the issue in Niger Delta?
The issue in Niger Delta can be spelled out by the principle of terror of Geography (Ikporukpo, 2007). That is the spot is characterised by intricate networks of distributaries, creeks and considerable swamps for this reason the spot is commonly explained in geography and other similar publications and paperwork as a challenging environment. Mainly because of the Physical Geography of the Niger Delta there has been the perception that the spot are unable to be formulated. The developmental condition in Bayelsa point out illustrates the injustice in Niger Delta, Yenagoa, the point out funds and its encompassing settlements were being only joined to the Countrywide grid in 2005! The final result of the injustice (neglect) on Niger Delta region and its men and women is the emergence of Niger Delta militias (about a dozen teams) who are battling for the “emancipation of their region and equitable distribution of sources or source command”
A person of the techniques Nigerian governing administration is adopting to address the issue of spatial injustice is through “social technology” or the ideas of “spatial engineering”. The central problem of geographers is spatial investigation i.e. site and distribution, room or area, men and women-environmental-interrelationship, spatial conversation and region (IGU, 1992). Just as engineers manipulate objects places, sites, regions and even men and women could be manipulated. Spatial engineering is about this manipulation. Morril (1996) and Ikporukpo (2002) determine spatial engineering in phrases of territorial manipulation, although Coates, Johnson and Knox (1977), Okafor (2000) conceptualize it in phrases of spatial manipulation of social properly remaining. As Ikporukpo (2002) puts it, spatial engineering consists of tries at re-arranging the room in buy to profit the men and women. Two elementary concerns in spatial engineering are site and powerful accessibility. The locational aspect refers to proximity to solutions and infrastructures although powerful accessibility emphasis regardless of whether there are socio-economic or political constraint in the techniques of utilization i.e., the use of spatio-social fairness and environmental justices. To accomplish fairness and justice, there is the need to manipulate the political and economic room in a beneficial course. This is the essence of spatial engineering in Geography.
By the identical token, Geographers have collaborated with men and women in the medical industry in spot of medical provision. This enhancement has specified increase to a new department of geography referred to as Medical Geography Medical Geography according to Ajaegbu (1981) is concerned with spatial investigation of most aspect of human health difficulties. In other terms, it is concerned with the spatial viewpoint of disorder with particular aim on the actual physical environment primarily environmental components this sort of as weather conditions and weather (Iyun 1998). Geographers and medical health staff have collaborated to address health treatment similar difficulties primarily in regions of setting up the best site of numerous classes of health amenities accessibility to health facility, spatio-temporal elements of disorders etcetera (Ayeni 1992 Okafor 1991 Ikporukpo 1987 Kwan 2003 Guagliardo 2004).
Geographers are also intrigued in the political system. This has specified increase to a department of Geography referred to as Political Geography. Political geography according Agnew (2008), is “the industry of Human Geography that is concerned with the examine of both equally the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the techniques in which political processes are them selves affected by spatial framework” Political Geography focuses notice on the internal and exterior relations of a point out and its localities. That is, the inter-interactions concerning men and women, point out and territory. The spatio-political concerns that are of problem to Geographers are concerns of boundaries, sources, regionalism, regional groupings or ethnicity/tribalism, census, elections etcetera. (Adedokun, 2007, 2008)
On top of that, Geographers are intrigued in the faith of men and women (religion) primarily as they differ spatially. Geographers examine religion not only simply because nationwide boundaries are generally influenced by the spiritual make-up of a inhabitants but also simply because religion can shape the very way that a society seems at its landscape. The prevalence of religion throughout the earth makes it possible for Geographers to examine how religions differ and how they are distributed from a person region to yet another. Geographers are intrigued in the distribution of religions as a way of finding out how religions get started and distribute, and as a means of furnishing statistical knowledge about the spiritual beliefs of a country’s inhabitants.
Probably the most appealing aspect of the Geography of religion is the examine of sacred web-sites and areas. Particular places are seen as sacred simply because they are linked with religiously sizeable situations or simply because of their distinctive geographic attributes. For occasion, Osun groove in Oshogbo acquired sacred importance simply because it was the web-site of Osun festival. Collectively, the sacred web-sites, paths and spatial interactions related with a religion make up what is referred to as a “Sacred Geography” in which these sites are embodied with a certain indicating derived from the beliefs of that particular religion. In lots of cultures, mountains, hills, rivers, forests etcetera are seen as inbound links concerning humans and religious earth. To men and women of lots of faiths, the act of traveling to a sacred web-site for the objective of spiritual observance is by itself a spiritual working experience. Geographers’ interest in all these is that pilgrimages have enormously influenced communities housing sacred web-sites as they strive to accommodate substantial numbers of site visitors. Lodging, food items, cleanliness, transportation and protection will have to be provided to assist the spiritual crowds.
Finally contemporary Geography is intrigued in gender concerns or what is refereed to as Feminist Geography. Feminist geography is an tactic in human geography which applies the theories, approaches and critiques of feminism to the examine of the human environment, culture and geographical room. Feminist Geographers generally aim on the everyday living ordeals of folks and teams in their very own localities, on the geographies that they are living in in just their very own communities, somewhat than theoretical enhancement without empirical do the job. Lots of feminist geographers examine the identical subjects as other Geographers, but generally with a aim on gender divisions. This problem has formulated into a problem with broader concerns of gender, family members, sexuality, etcetera. Examples of regions of aim which stem from this features: (a). Geographical differences in gender relations and gender equality (b)The geography of women – spatial constraints, welfare geography (c) The construction of gender identity through the use and character of areas and sites and (d) Geographies of sexuality and kid’s geographies In addition to societal studies, Feminist Geography also critiques Human Geography and other academic disciplines, arguing that academic structures have been typically characterised by a patriarchal viewpoint, and that contemporary studies which do not confront the character of preceding do the job fortify the masculine bias of academic examine.The British Geographer Gillian Rose’s Feminism and Geography is a person this sort of sustained criticism, centered on Human Geography in Britain as remaining historically masculinist in its tactic.
Summary
This paper has examined the post scientific technique in finding out geography. Nonetheless it should really be noted that this does not necessarily mean the overall rejection of scientific technique. Scientific technique nonetheless very influential in geographical investigate. This is envisioned to keep on in the twenty first Century which is characterised by computerization and Data Technological know-how (IT). Geography as it is erroneously believeds, is not just about the names and site of sites and geographical attributes, exploration, expedition and discovery. As Ikporukpo (2002) rightly noted, if these were being what Geography is all about, the willpower will have to have died lengthy in the past and may perhaps have resurrected with rather new exploration of the outer room. Geography is an all encompassing scientific willpower concerned with humanities, as properly as problem for the overall environment together with actual physical attributes and human environment and primarily the interactions, interdependence, and inter-interactions between them. The summary to be drawn is that the examine of geography should really be inspired at all concentrations of education and Geographers be regarded as owning essential roles to engage in in choice building and implementation, if any meaningful accomplishment is to be manufactured in nationwide enhancement attempts.
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Resource by Dr. Adedokun Olutoyin Moses
