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Chapter One
- A. Historical Development of Modern Society
The reasons given by historians for the technological development and the industrial revolution of the18th and 19th centuries are:
- Expansion of commerce that began in the middle ages with the opening of the Middle East to European trade.
- Renaissance — Rebirth: Renaissance refers to the new wave of art science technology and the religion that swept-through Europe between 14th and 18th centuries which first fostered the scientific spirit of inquiry and experimentation necessary for technological progress.
Renaissance started in Italy and spread all over Europe. As a result of this spread, hundreds of neglected and forgotten volumes of ancient learning were rediscovered in Europe from the East. As a result of this, new scientific principles are formulated which led to the invention of many profitable industrial devices and thus setting the stage for the massive technological development of the succeeding generation.
- B. Protestant Reformation
This greatly contributed to the scientific enquiry, which began in Germany led by Martin Luther King (1483-1546). Protestants broke from the church of Rome and established Protestantism as a different form of Christianity with the bible as
its authority. This changed the authority and philosophy of the church as a result of which individual responsibility and diversity thought were given greater encouragement and emphasis. 1k early Protestants discouraged slavery and as a result, men have to think if labor saving devices. All these greatly accelerated the march towards technological progress. Some of the early inventors were Protestant Christians.
- C. Printing Press
The Protestants in their quest to spread the Bible though several ways to do this to serve as an effective anchor against the influence of Roman Catholicism. The printing press was inverted by Gutemberg with the sole aim of printing the Bible, thus making the Bible the first book to come out of the press. This idea widely spread to different part of Europe. Caxton was the first to practice printing in London. All the volume of the scientific writings that were discovered during the renaissance were printed and widely distributed.
Apart from those slated above, certain individuals also contributed to this technological progress through scientific enquires this include:
1. Galileo (1564— 1642): He was one of the leaders of what is often referred to as the mechanical philosophy that swept through Western Europe in the 17th century. Some of his contributions to technology are the invention of pendulum clock
and telescope He also initiated the science of the strength of materials, the determination of a general expression-carrying a load thus making it possible for the great advances in the design of structures, bridges and canal. He also applied the principle of the lever to a technological problems. This contribution in the area of theory of machines, power and strength of materials fielded the industrial innovation that was to follow in the next century.
2. Isaac Newton (1642 — 1726): By proposing the idea of mass, acceleration, force and momentum, he laid the foundation of the mechanics of machines. His laws of motion formed the basis for the invention of steam power and the great advances of the mechanical world. Similarly, his discovery of gravitation marks the beginning of modern science.
3. Abraham Darby (1709):- In the 17th century, England in growing demand for fuel had led inevitably to an increase use of coal not only for domestic heating and cooking but also for various chemicals and metallurgical process. This fuel shortage stimulated iron masters to seek ways of using coke instead of charcoal for smelting of iron. Although it seems a difficult business, but in 1709, Abraham Derby succeeded in using local coke to smelt iron and thus laid the foundation stone of the great iron and steel industries of today.
- D. Industrial Revolution
Industrial revolution is a term in economic history to describe the period of transition from manual technique to machine technique of production. It began in Great Britain at out 1760 and resulted in the replacement of the domestic stem of manufacturing by the factory system.
The period saw a quickening change in the growth rate m a pre-industrial to a post-industrial society. Since then, the world has never and can never be the same as a result this revolution.
It started from Britain and gradually spread all over Europe and North America. This same process has been carried further change radically the socio-economic life of the far East, Africa, Latin American and Australia.
The industrial revolution thus becomes a world-wide phenomenon occurring in all parts of the world except place the influence of Western-civilization has not reached or being felt
- Impact of Industrial Revolution in Europe
The industrial revolution has a continuously accelerated the expansion of knowledge and its application to technology thereby resulting in a Large variety of mechanical machines the production of goods and services. It is also true that revolution has left a lot of favorable and unfavorable impact Europe and the whole world.
Some favorable impacts:
i. The revolution inaugurated the growth of manufacture center and in turn attracted a large urban working class
ii. In addition to greatly increasing production the revolution has substantially raised income and developed complex system of transportation and communication.
iii. It accelerated the evolution of the cooperation as a result of large-scale business which further generated scientific research and technological progress.
iv. British economy and even that of Europe were more of agricultural rather than industrial, but the revolution reversed this trend.
v. Europe lead in economic. colonial, royal and political power of 19th century was chiefly brought about by the industrial revolution and could not have been possible without it.
vi. It has affected the monotony of daily life. Man now does his work in different ways, with different-tools at different tempo as part of a different organization.
vii Families enjoy far better health, more leisure and greater mobility than the common people of the pre-revolution days.
F. Some of the unfavorable impacts
1. It systematized child labor to an appalling extent.
2. Women were put to labor that almost deprived her of womanhood.
3. It leads to increase in population thus causing old problem to re-appear. These are ancient problems of scarcity and hunger.
4. It lead to the spring up of cities that were mostly industrial slums much more extensive that the rural slums they supplemented.
G. Lessons of Industrial Revolution in Nigeria
The lessons of industrial revolution in Nigeria can be broadly divided into two:
1. Large-scale business and development in the past 25 years. Nigeria has witnessed large-scale business and industrial growth, which cannot be ignored. The growth manufacturing centers which, in turn has attracted a Large urban working class, across the country, is too obvious escape attention.
2. The replacement of the manual system with- factory system is another lesson from the industrial revolution.
H. Technological Advancements
The development of technology and level of technology advancement differ from all nations to another. Some nations are highly advanced in technological development while some are still struggling to tap the natural resources that are endowed to them by nature. While some nations have transformed, their society through atomic age, computer age and jet age, while most nations have not discovered themselves technologically. The level of technological development of a country measure of its economic independence and its security.
- I. Nature of Technological Advancement
Industrial revolution started in Britain but the effect spread to Europe and America and to the rest part of the world. Today, America. Germany and Japan are more industrial than Britain despite that the changes started from there. This is the nature of technological advancement. Japan stands today as the most advance industrialized and technological nation of the world with a trade supplies over America. The irony of it, is that Japanese technological innovation are basedon America and British prototype. Since technological idea cannot be monopolized, there is a tendency of technology advancement to spread, such as the pervasive nature of Nuclear energy e.g. as the proliferation of Nuclear Energy. At first USA had the atomic which later become the joker of second world war but today, Russian, Britain, France, Israel. Indian all have the atomic bomb. Nations like Africa, Pakistan. Iraq and even Libya are said to possess some form of nuclear capability.
J. Role of Material in Technology
The role of material in the development of engineering technology cannot be over emphasized. Technological advancement became impossible without material to work with. Engineers require two types of natural resources, material and energy. Materials are useful because of their properties — strength ease of-fabrication, durability or lightness, ability to insulate conducts chemical, electrical, acoustical property. Material in engineering include iron, steel, copper, aluminum, lithium and alloys, wood rubber, plastic, sand, timber, cement which wide range of engineering application.
K. Role of Technology in the Manufacturing Industry
While it is impossible to convert idea to reasonable and saleable product without material it is equally impossible process raw material to finished goods without technology.
L. Role of Technology in the Development of Power Fuel
No fundamental innovation was recorded in development of fuel and power until after the end of 1945, several significant techniques arose, though they had their in the prevailing century. One of the most outstanding is, industrial revolution has brought the advancement in for power and fuel. At the beginning of this period, the sources of power available to industry and any other cons were animal energy and the power of wind and water. How the use of wind and water power through windmills and wheels respectively, decline sharply in the10th century with trade to steam and increase scale of power generation.
With increase in research by the middle of the19th century, new design made possible increases in the speed of revolution of the water wheels and this prepare the wheels to the emergence of water turbine, which is still an extremely efficient turbine for energy conversion.
Steam Engine: Although the older sources of power mention above are important however steam was a characteristic source of power for the industrial-revolution.
James Watt invented the steam engine in the year 1769. Although the engine under went a lot of refinement for more than a century.
Steam Turbine: Sir Charles Persons inverted the steam turbine in 1884. The process was based on passing steam through the blade of a series of rotor of gradually increasing size to allow for the expansion of the steam. That is, the energy of the steam was converted to very rapid circular motion which was ideal for generating electricity. Also most nuclear power stations still use steam turbine because technology has not yet solve the problem of transferred nuclear energy directly to electricity. Also steam turbine remains an important source of power in marine propulsion
Electricity: Although electricity has also been present in nature from time immemorial, however, the development of electricity in the late century due to the engineering work of Benjamin Franklin Alexandra Volta, and Michael Faraday all of Britain.
The development of carbon filament lamp by Thomas Edison of United State provide fresh uses for electricity as domestic illuminant instead of gas which was used in those days the spread of electricity has been regarded as one of the remarkable technological success story of 20th century.
Internal Combustion Engine: The internal combustion engine (ICE) emerged in 19th century as a result of greater scientific understanding of the principles of thermodynamics and of search for substance of steam power. The operation of the internal combustion engine is that the fuel is burned in the engine The first application of the engine to locomotion were made in Germany where Gottieb Daimler and Carl Benz who equipped first motor cycle and the first car respectively with the engine of their own design in 1885.
Carl Benz motor-car became the prototype of the modern automobile, the development and consequences of which has been revolutionized as transport today.
Gas Turbine in Engineering: This engine is based on the principle of first compressing and burning the air and fuel and combustion chamber and using the exhaust from this process to provide the room to react and propel the engine forward.
Petroleum: The gas turbine burns mainly kerosene or paraffin or refined oil. The refining of petroleum has undergone important technological development the process consists of a fairly simple batch process whereby oil was heated until it vaporized, thus the various fraction arestill distilled separately.
The introduction of thermal cracking in 1913 turned new leaf m the refinement of petroleum. The process took less volatile fraction after distillation and subjected them to heat under pressure thus cracking the heavy molecules, into lighter molecules and so increasing the yield of the most valuable fuel-petrol or gasoline. The introduction in 1936 of Catalytic cracking and marked another significant development this process afforded the means of further manipulation of the molecules, thus paving the way for the development of plastics.
M. Improvements in Transportation through Technology
A good transportation system is highly essential in national development because of the political, economic and socio cultural roles it plays. Transportation has however passed through several stages of development. Some of the outstanding achievement of the 202th century are provided by transportation. The development of transportation has undergone a metamorphosis to internal combustion engines and electricity. From the wheel, right through the electric motor and the great technological break through of flight and space travel through rocket engines, transportation certainly passed a lot of stages and phases of development
Road Transportation: Most of the journeys made in the wad today are by road through vehicles such as cars, buses and heavy vehicle for carrying goods. The highways engineers ensure ride ability and ensure that the road element is strong enough to carry the vehicle transportation and design the roadways.
Rail Transportation: A lot of improvements have also come to rail transport. Trains are operated on electric power supplied by overhead wires and achieve a very high speed of about 2OOkm/hr. This type of train can be found in Japan, France, Germany, Britain and the United States.
Air Transportation: The first powered flight took place in 1903 an airplane designed by two American bicycle mechanics, Wilber Wright (1867-1912) and his brother Orgiville Writght (1871-1948). Since then, developments have been rapid for both military and civil use leading to increase speed comfort and safety.
A journey that would normally have taken several days by road and rail now require only few hours by air transport.
N. Technological Advances in Electrics Some Advances are:
Telegraph: Is a device for sending messages over a distance by means of codes of some kinds. The American Army used it during the Second World War.
Television: Was developed by John said (1888 — 1946). It is a medium of communication primary used for broadcasting original impressions of reality through space and the most effective means of mass communication known to mankind.
Telex Type Writer: It is a mechanical device for transmitting and
Receiving messages.
Telex: This is a telegraph exchange service that enables
Subscribers to communicate directly with one another by means of telex typewriter.
Telegraph: An electro mechanical device for sending and receiving handwritten messages by wire.
Electron Microscope: Uses a beam of electron to form a magnified image of specimen, used in laboratories, hospital and manufacturing organization to study dislocation in metals, examine the structure of virus and bacteria and for the study of surfaces.
Lasers: This is among the latest development in electronics. They are capable of operation at a high frequencies. Used for distance communication in space and distance measuring information process as machining and welding.
Telemeter: An electric equipment for collecting data transmitting to a designated status as it is being recorded.
Computer: This is a20th century invention based on the flu founded by the Charles Babbage in 1830. Computer is greatequipment that has brought a lot of progress to mm communication, operation, data storage etc.
Chapter Two
- A. Indigenous Technological Development in Nigeria
Indigenous technology can be defined as coordinated systems of techniques developed by the indigene themselves and for-themselves base on the available raw materials and to meet local means and condition. It is not correct to say that Nigeria does not possess technology of their own. There has been indigenous technology in Nigeria before our colonization this is evidence from the extensive, iron smelting in the old Oyo kingdom, tins melting in area around Jos plateau, the artist bronze work and Benin empire and Ife kingdom, Bida bronze work and the manufacturing of day-gun, cutlasses, hoes and axes by the local blacksmith.
This technology is still in use today as evidence by palm wine exertion, cassava processing and storage and preservation. However, the scope of this technology couple with the quality and quantity of their output nave been very minimal over the years and revolutionary and pervasive scope of modern technology is however lacking in this indigenous technology. It must be emphasized that it is of absolute necessity for Nigeria’s to develop her own technology. This technology apart from utilizing our local raw materials and thus in conserving our foreign exchange, we also create work and employment opportunity.
- B. Influence of Foreign Technology on Nigeria Technology
No nation can be independent, but most of the importer technologies hinder the progress of one’s country. This is the reason why Indian stop importing goods and even American tar have started adopting the system to make them to be self- sufficient.
Causes of Reliance on Foreign Technology in Nigeria
1. Acquisition of untested ideals (hypothesis), which are sold in packages. Receiving a foreign material without considering the quality of it.
2. Flooding our port and plants with obsolete equipment i.e out of use equipment like already used foreign cars.
3. The readiness of Nigeria to pay. More for foreign material than cheaper-material made locally etc. All this and other has contribute to the present state of technological development of Nigeria and there seems to be no better prospect in the days to come unless this attitude changes
The Demerits of the Importation of Foreign Expertise
The importation of foreign expertise on Nigeria technology has its own merit no doubt, such as:
1. It affords the nation an opportunity to enjoy the fruits ~ reason of another nation.
2. Technology is made available to cater to the needs of the populace.
3. It enhances-good-neighborliness and internal cooperation. However the demerits far outweigh the merits. The demerits are classified into two categories namely
a. It leads to the undesirable consequences of technological dependence. This can be classified into six (6) main points namely:
i. Lack of appropriateness
ii. Foreign exchange-cost-incurred by the host government.
iii. Implicit cost, associated with restrictive and other types of produces of technological suppliers.
iv. Loss of control over decisions as most of the decision will not have to be taken by expatriates.
v. Lack of effective indigenous technology capacity.
vi. Marginalization of domestic research and development.
b. Lack of methods to achieve suitable decisions on the technologies due to;
i. Non availability of alternative ways of transferring
Technology.
ii. Absence of sectional studies and identifications of their weaknesses.
iii. Weakness of suitable criteria for selection and transfer mechanism.
- C. Technological Development in Nigeria
According to Dr. Simon Ramo “A modern nation cannot successful no matter how well it handles, over things, if it is not successful in the professional practice of engineering”. The validity of this statement is exemplified by the present day realities and the technological history of nations.
Over the past thirty to fifty years, Nigeria has with vigorous development in the area of technology. We shall consider the development of some of the engineering r services in Nigeria.
D. Transport and Communication
1. Railways: – Railways started with the western line s from Lagos to the north. It started in Ebutte-Metta in 1896 reached Ibadan in 1900 and Jebba in 1909. Almost arouar same period in the northern line started from Baro in Niger to Kano and the construction took place between 1907 and 1911. When they got to Jebba they stopped because of the river sc completed the line from the other side of Jebba in 1913. A line started from Zaria to Jos to connect the tin there in 1911same year coal was discovered in Enugu and so Easterr started from Port Harcourt in 1913 and reached Kaduna in A need for another line from Kano to Guru in Born eventually led to the opening of Kano Guru Line in 1927. Zaria Kaora Nawoda extention was completed in 1929
The Jebba bridge was completed in 1916 likewise the construction of Markudi Bridge was finished in 1932 and so the western line could be connected with the Northern line. As at 1936, Nigeria had a total network of 3,150km of railway network.
2. ROADS: No economy can operate without the regular movement of people and goods. Provision of good transport system can lead to an increasing population of the economy’s total output. In 1912 the main road system of the southern Nigeria had been completed. By 1930 most of the another system had been completed and the nation could boast of 45,130km of road network out of which only 1,650km were tarred.
In the period leading up to independence, transport systems were more extensively utilized and a decisive shift in favor of road transport had already begun to emerge. As at 1970 road transport has become the most dominant and decisive sub sector of transportation.
With the establishment of four-vehicle assembly plant by mid-I 970’s road transport became an important element.
YEAR
LENGTH OF TARRED
ROADS (KM)
TOTAL LENGTH OF ALL ROADS IN (KM)
1962
11,053
71,870
1968
15,200
91,210
1969
15,758
90,958
1971
16,122
91,210
1972
18,108
. 95,374
1976
28,242
113,938
1980
28,632
114,768
Source: Federal Republic of Nigeria fourth National development plan 1981-1995 Volume p. 220.
Fig. 1 Expansion of the Nigerian Road Network 1962-80
Ports and Harbors:- Before 1914 all cargo coming to Nigeria have to be offloaded at Forcados and then taken to Lagos in a small boat, However between 1907 and 1914 the Lagos harbour was dressed and so it became possible for cargoes to offload there. Work started at Port-Harcourt in 1913, and after that work started at other ports like Calabar, Opobo (River State), Brass, Akassa, Degema. Koko, Sapele. Ward and Burutu. Altogether, Nigeria has 10 seaports as at independence.
Airport:- The first aero plane landed in Nigeria in 1926 and by 1936 the first regular airmail service between Britain and Nigeria started. Air transport number of passengers coming and departing from Nigeria by air had risen from 26,000 in 1953 to 56,000. By 1960 about 15 aerodromes were owned by Nigeria.
Post and Telecommunication Telegraph
As at 1904 the following towns have been linked to Lagos by Telegraph namely Eket, Benin, Rorcado. By 1907 Afikpo, Ikot, Epene, and Bendel have been linked. In 1910 Lagos was linked to Zungeru.
At the same time post officer were operated in Nigeria. In the year 1945 telephone services was introduced and by 1946 there were 5,800 telephone lines.
E . Development and Generation of Power in Nigeria
Electricity was 1st produced in 1896 with a total capacity generation of 60 KW. In the year 1946, Nigeria Government Electricity under taking was established within the then publics works department to take over the responsibility for electricity supply in the Lagos area. There were then electricity undertaking owned and managed by local authorities and private organizations.
In the year 1950, Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) was established by the ordinance No. 15 of 1950
Along with the ECN, there were other bodies that had licenses to produce electricity in some locations in Nigeria. Notable among such bodies were the:
i. The Nigeria Electricity Supply Company (NESCO).
ii. The Africa Timber and Plywood Limited as Sapele, which produced, electricity to the UAC plywood.
With the rapid expansion of socio-economic and political activities it became apparent that Nigeria would need more electricity supply.
As at independence especially on 1st October 1960, the max total demand of electricity in Lagos was 39 MW. This was being conveniently supplied by 25MW from ‘B’ power station and 30MW from “A” power station at Ijora in Lagos. The first 132KV transmission line was constructed in June 1961 and was 146KW long connecting Lagos and Ibadan via Shagamu.
In the year 1962 another body known as Niger Dam Authority (NDA) was established by an act of parliament. This Authority was responsible for the construction and maintenance of dams and other works on the River Niger and elsewhere generating electricity by means of water, power, improving navigation and promoting fisheries and irrigation.
As at the year 1965 the Lagos-Ibadan 132km line has been extended to Oshogbo, Benin and Ughelli forming what was known as the western system and the Kaduna-Zaria-Kano system in the Northern part of Nigeria.
NDA’s hydroelectric power station in Kanji was commissioned in February with an initial capacity of 320MW. The energy produced by NDA was sold to ECN for distribution.
In 1972 the operations of the ECN and NDA were merged to form the National Electric Power Authority by the Decree No, 24 of 1972. The bulk of the supply of energy to the country has since been the main task NEPA and in terms of increased facilities it expands at an estimated annual rate of 20%.
Over the last 26years the production of electricity has varied from gas fired steam to gas turbine and hydroelectric power stations. In 1969 the total installed generation capacity in Nigeria was 135.8MW produced by 32 stations all over the country.
Seventeen of these were diesel plants, a gas turbine plant, three gas fired steam in the Southern Cameroon. Some of the major plants were then at Kano, Enugu, Elemyele, Ibadan, Afum, Calabar and Oji River. The total installed capacity had increased considerably over the year and now stands at about 4,620MW derived principally from Afam (770MW) Delta (710MW) Jebba (312MW) Kanji (560MW) Egbin (540MW) and Ijora (660MW). Nigeria commissioned two hydro-electric stations at Kainji and Jebba for 1.300MW while there are five thermal power stations at Sapele, Afam, Delta (Ughelli), Ijora and Eghin.
Electrical Energy Demand
Large-scale production of electricity is carded out in various power stations situated round the country. The production of electric energy over the last 20 to 30 year varied from steam power stations to gas power stations and H.E.P station. The largest energy producing station in 1980 is the kainji dam and had over the period of Sahelian drought of 1977/78.
Gas turbine stations have been built in Nigeria with great concept being to utilize a fraction of the gas being fired daily in the oil producing areas.
Steam power stations have been playing a role in the supply of energy for the country simply but the basic source of energy is used to raise steam which in turn drives steam turbines which are coupled to the generators. These are therefore situated over coalfields or coal centers. The cost of mining and transporting coal however, has made the use of coal unattractive especially as Nigeria has an abundance of gas and oil.
NEPA is making positive efforts to tap all resources at its disposal. The Shiroro hydroelectric plant was later commissioned in 1991 to boost H.E.P to the grid system installed generating capacity. Also three hydro station sites namely: Lokoja, Ikom and Makurdi have been investigated in detail as well as feasibility studies for Mambilla and sungaru hydro dams. Also in the pipeline are the oron steam plant for 1,000 MW and Gurara Hydro electric station for 300MW. It is significant to note that the energy output now is about 30 times what it used to be at independence.
YEAR
MAXIMUM DEMAND MW
MAXIMUM %
GROWTH
1970/71
253
–
1971/72
330
30.4
1972/73
390
18.2
1973/74
405
14.1
1974/75
527
18.4
1975/76
629
19.4
1976/77
758
20.5
1977/78
979
29.1
1978/79
1,201
22.6
1979/80
1,392
15.9
SOURCE: NEPA, power system department plan 1976.
Fig 2. Electrically remand Nigeria 1970-80
Electrical Energy Consumption
In 1960 NEPA generated 81% of the country’s total consumption and in 1976 NEPA generated 96%. In 1980 it generated 98% of the country’s total energy consumption. Thus the major part of electrical energy needs of the country is at present being generated by NEPA. It should be assumed and rightly so that the growth of energy consumption in Nigeria which we can see is a sufficient prove of NEPA’s growth of energy sales.
The transmission system like other areas of NEPA operating facility experienced rapid expansion in the period 1960-85. The transmission system has grown from a single 146/132kv Lagos Shagamu – Ibadan line constructed in 1961 to an interconnected 330kv/132kv transmission grid spanning the whole country.
In 1985 the 330kv system had reached 4,450km while 132kv stands at 3,830km. The last 26yrs, has also impressed a remarkable growth in the distribution sector of the authority’s operations. This is reflected in the growth of consumer population which, rose from 93,653 in 1960 to 1.6million in 1984. This number although relatively high is very much short of expectation when compared with the demographic population of the whole country of about 90million.
The growth of the consumer population was severally handicapped between 1965-1970 as a result of the war in Nigeria. Electricity consumer in Nigeria fall under three categories, residential, commercial and industrial. In 1960 the rate of growth of energy demand recorded by the Industrial consumers was higher than that of residential and commercial consumers. However, in 1971 the residential had increased to meet up the industrial and by 1979 residential energy demand is higher than industrial.
Then gives a glaring picture of what to expect in the future as one should expect residential energy users to be on the increase since more houses are built daily for residential purposes.
- F. Hindrances to Nigeria’s Technological Development
Some of the factors are:
1. Lack of National Priority: Absence of national priority is one of the causes of Nigeria’s under development.
2. Lack of patronage of Indigenous technology: Most Nigerians still have the mentality that foreign product is better. This is manifested by the-readiness to pay more for foreign materials than cheaper-local ones.
3. Intellectual laziness:- Our intellectuals who should be at fore front of technological development through research are too busy with some other things or too lazy to be of much benefit. We may not ever be able to blame the intellectuals for this state of affairs: because in a situation where a lecturer cannot feed his family with his salary, you certainly cannot talk about research.
4. Lack of a dynamic and progressive political leadership. Retrogressive political leadership never advances the frontiers of technological development, which has been our lot in this nation since independence.
The history of technology shows us that the great studies that have been made in technology were made usually under dynamic political leadership. America’s advances in space technology were made under J. F. Kennedy, Russia made her slides under Joe Stalin; India under Pandit and Israel made hers under David Ben Gurcon.
5. Inadequate professional education:- Another factor retarding Nigeria’s technological development what we called inadequate professional education. Unlike Germany or even Russia where technical education follows a specialized pattern, professional education in Nigeria however lacks continuity.
Other factors are:
- Lack of vision,
- Lack of political will and,
- Endemic all-pervading corruption in private and public life.
- G. Path to Nigeria’s Technological Development
Certain contented efforts and radical steps will have tobetaken to bring Nigeria out of her backwardness.
The following policies for meaningful development are now suggested.
1. Immediate abolition of further importation of goods and services that can be produced locally.
2. No car or any luxury item should be imported that cannot be produced in Nigerian.
3. Establishment of a science and technology village somewhere in Nigeria, where every research funding product of invention can be-developed, and where the best brain can be camped.
4. Increase in financial allocation to research institution, universities etc and Government should have the will to implement research findings.
5. There should be no more overseas medical checkup unless there is a clearance by Nigerian Medical Association to back it up.
6. A new national attitude of whatever we can’t produce we also don’t need” should be developed.
Chapter Three
- A. Technical Education System in Nigeria
We are interested in the policy as it affects technical education. Technical education is defined as “that aspect of education which deals with the acquisition of practical applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge the policy listed the following among the aims of technical education:
(a) To prove trained manpower in applied science, technology and commerce particularly at sub professional grade;
(b) To provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development.
(c) To provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement and solution of environmental problems, for the use and convenience of man.
(d) To give an introduction to professional studies in engineering and other technologies.
(e) To give training and impart the necessary skills leading to the production of craftsmen, technicians and other skilled personnel who will be enterprising and self-reliant, and
(f) To enable our young men and women to have an intelligent understanding of the increasing complexity of technology.
- B. Structure of Technical Education
At present there are six types of institution that offer technical in Nigeria these are:
Pre Vocational schools
Vocational Colleges (at post primary level)
Technical colleges
Colleges of education technical
Polytechnics and colleges of technology
The Universities.
These institutions help to produce the categories of technical personnel like craftsmen, artisan, technician, technologists, and engineers in that order.
- C. Roles of Technical Personnel
The roles of different categories of technical personnel are stated as follows in reverse order:
- Engineer: The engineer is the leader of the construction team just like the doctor is the head of the medical-team. He plans, designs, conceives workable ideas and put them on paper. He also supervises engineer project works to ensure that they conform to approve standard and specifications.
- Technologist:The technologist possesses higher education, takes the designs produced by the engineer and interprets them to the technicians and artisans. He also ensures that the job is done to the engineer’s requirements and specifications.
- Technician:The technician is usually a skilled worker and carries out the actual work with the assistance of the artisans.
- Artisans:They are usually semi-skilled laborers with little or no formal education but who might have serve as apprenticeship for some years. They give assistance to the technician in the process of execution of engineering projects.
- D. Higher Education
Higher education is defined as all types of education (academic, professional, technological or teacher education) provided in institutions such as universities, liberal arts colleges, technological institutes and teachers colleges for which:
- The basic entrance requirement is completion of secondary education.
- The usual entrance age is about 18 years, and
- In which the courses lead to the giving of a named award (degree, diploma, or certificate of higher studies). Higher education in Nigeria covers post-secondary education provided in universities, polytechnics and colleges of education, correspondence colleges and such similar institutions.
The aims of this level of education are:
- The acquisition, development and inculcation of proper value orientation for the survival of the individual and society.
- The development of the intellectual capacities of individuals to understand and appreciate their environment.
- The acquisition of both physical and intellectual skills, which will enable individuals to develop, into useful members of community.
- The acquisition of an objective view of the local and external environment.
- The making of optimum contributions to national development through the training of higher level man power.
- The promotion of national unity by ensuring that admissions of students and requirements of staff into universities and other institutions of higher learning shall as far as possible, be on a broad national basis and
- The promotion and encouragement of scholarship and research.
- E. University
There are up to 40 Federal and State universities in Nigeria today, all of them with technologically based courses and with a student enrolment of about 290,610 (1992). Private universities are springing up in large numbers. The universities with their specialized courses in engineering and technology help to produce higher-level technical manpower like the engineers and scientist etc.
- F. University’s Programmes Engineering
This section describes university’s programmes in Engineering beginning from the 1st year to the 5th and the last year.
The first year usually, begins with the student learning the basic science preparatory to his starting the engineering programme. At this time he takes courses like his other colleagues in the sciences, basically in physics, chemistry and mathematics. In some universities candidates are still required to take come basic, engineering courses at this level. At the second year, the student takes courses in general engineering to give him a general background in the knowledge of engineering. This is to enable the student have a wider experience and scope of other engineering, branches other than the one he is involved at the end of the 2nd year he undergoes the student work experience programme (SWEPS). In the third year and the fourth year, the student takes courses that are particularly relevant to his discipline with industrial training to match.
At the final year i.e. the fifth year he is trained along a particular area of specialization of the discipline he has chosen. The only advantage is that I think is inherent in university education system particularly in engineering is perhaps the continuity between the successive stages; this is probably common in place they operate course unit or semester system.
Polytechnics
Nigerians too can boast of about 27 federal and state polytechnics and about 12 mono-techniques with total student enrolment of about 70,000. The polytechnics like the universities, offer specialized form of technical education along various lines.
Polytechnics Programmes of Engineering
The polytechnic program’s of engineering different ability from those of the university due mainly to the duration of the programs. In the polytechnics the duration of the academic program is 4years i.e. 2 years for the National Diploma (ND) and another 2 years for the Higher National Diploma (HND). There is a break of 1 year between the two programmes to enable the students to earn some practical experience through industrial attachments.
Right from the first year the student starts with his course of study and continues to build on that basic knowledge in succeeding years. This is the great advantage in Polytechnic education. It is much more direct and caters to the need of industries than university education. But if also has two great disadvantages namely:
i. It lacks the wider scope of University education
ii. It does not develop in the student a meaningful capability for independent study but the University does.
- G. Problems Facing Education in Nigeria
The following are some of the problems or difficulties facing education in Nigeria
(i) Inadequate number of qualified teachers especially in mathematics, science, music, art etc.
(ii) Shortage and inadequate maintenance equipment
(iii) Lack of essential facilities (Libraries, laboratories, classrooms)
(iv) Large classes due to increase in enrolment with no corresponding increase in facilities;
(v) Inadequate statistical data necessary for education planning and research; and
(vi) Inadequate facilities for research and training for university staff.
- H. National Board for Technical Education
The National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) was established by the decree No. 9 of 1977 by government of General Olusegun Obasanjo. Section of the decree clearly define the functions of the board. The functions are divided into different categories as follows:
To advice the federal government on and to coordinate all aspects of technical and vocational education falling out side the universities and to make recommendations on the national policy necessary for the full development of technical and vocational education for the training of technicians, craftsmen and other middle level and skilled man power.
b. To determine, after consultation with the National man power board, the industrial training fund and such other bodies as it consider appropriate, the skilled and middle level man power needs of the country in the industrial, commercial and other relevant fields for the purpose of planning, training facilities and in a particular to prepare periodic master plans for the balanced and coordinate development of polytechnics and colleges of technology such plans shall include:
i. The general programs to be pursued by polytechnics and colleges of technology in other to maximize the use of available facilities and avoid unnecessary duplication while ensuring that they are adequately to the man power of the country.
ii. Recommendation for the establishment and location of new polytechnics and colleges of technology as when necessary.
iii. To inquire out and advice the federal government on the financial needs, both recurrent and capital of polytechnics and colleges of technology and other technical institutions to enable them meet the objective or producing training man power needs of the country.
iv. To receive block grants from the federal government and allocates them to polytechnic and colleges of technology in accordance with such formula as may be laid down by the federal executive council.
v. To act as the agency for channeling all external aid to polytechnics and colleges of technology in Nigeria.
vi. To advice on and take steps to harmonize entry requirements and duration of courses at Nigeria technical institutions.
vii. To lay down standards as of skills to be attained and to continually review such standards as necessitated technical and national needs.
viii. To review method of assessment of students and trainees and to develop a scheme of national certification of technicians, craftsmen and other skilled personnel in collaboration with memories and organization having technical training.
ix. To undertake periodic reviews of the forms and condition of services of personnel in polytechnics and colleges of technology and to make recommendation there onto the Federal Government.
x. To analyze, collate .and publish information relating to technical and vocational education.
xi. To consider any matter pertaining to technical or technological education as may be referred to it from time to time by the ministry of education.
Chapter Four
- A. The Roles of an Engineer
Technology; The practical application of science to commerce or industry. It is the discipline dealing with art of science of applying scientific knowledge to practical problems.
Engineering is the discipline and profession of applying technical, scientific and mathematical knowledge in order to use natural laws and physical resources to help design and implement materials,structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that safely realize a desired objective.
It is the application of science to the needs of humanity; the work of an engineer; the profession in which a knowledgeable mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to use economically the materials and forces of nature for.
Engineer– An engineer’s degree is a graduate academic degree intermediate in rank between a master’s degree and a doctoral degree in the United States. In Europe. it can be an approximately five-year degree roughly equivalent to a master’s degree.
Engineering Technology is a field of study which focuses on the applications of engineering and modern technology, rather the theoretical. “The distinction between engineering and engineering technology emanates primarily from differences in their education programs. Engineering programs are geared toward development of conceptual skills, and consist of a sequence of engineering fundamentals and design courses, built on a foundation of complex mathematics and science courses. Engineering technology programs are oriented toward application, and provide their students introductory mathematics and science courses, and only a qualitative introduction to engineering fundamentals. Thus, engineering programs provide their graduates a breadth and depth of knowledge that allows’ them to function as designers. Engineering technology programs prepare their graduates to apply others’ designs.
- B. Who is an Engineer?
In our society the term ‘Engineer” is completely misunderstood by the majority of people. To most people an engineer is no more than an operator-of engine, a bicycle repairer, or a roadside mechanic. However an engineer is some-body who has received a professional training in pure and applied science utilizing the same knowledge for solving practical problems to make life easy to mankind. From the above definition, the engineer can be contrasted with the above definition, the engineer can be contrasted with the scientist. The function of the scientists is to know, while that of the engineer is to do. The scientists adds’ to the store of verified: or systematized knowledge of bear on practical problems.
Unlike the scientists, the engineer is not free to select problem that interest him, he must solve problems as they his solution must satisfy conflicting requirements. The engineers involved in an art requiring the judgment necessary to knowledge to practical purposes, the imagination to conceive original solutions to problems and ability to predict performance and cost of new devices of processes actually accurately. The engineer carries out the design but the technologist is the one who executes the design of the engineer using the technicians and the artisans.
- C. Functions of an Engineer
One activity common to all the various branches engineering is problem solving. The problem may quantitative or qualitative factors; it may be physical or economical it may require abstract mathematics or common sense.
In order of decreasing emphasis, the major functions of engineering branches as follows:
1. Research: In research engineer seek new principles and processes employing mathematical and scientific concepts, experimental techniques and inductive reasoning.
2. Development:- Here the results obtained through research are applied by the engineer to useful purposes.
3. Design: In design, the engineer selects methods specifics materials and determines shapes to satisfy technical requirements and to meet performance specifications.
4. Construction: The construction engineer responsible for preparing the site determining procedures that will economically and safety held the desired quality, directing the placement of materials and organizing the personnel and equipment.
5. Production: The production engineer chooses processes and integrates the flow of materials and components and provides for testing and inspection plant layout and equipment selection with consideration for human and economic factors is the responsibility of the production of engineer.
6. Operation: In operation the engineer controls machines plants and organization providing power, transportation and communication. He determines procedures and supervises personnel to obtain reliable and economic operations of complex equipment.
7. Management: In some countries and industries, engineers analyze customers requirements, recommend, ways to satisfy needs economically and resolve related problems. In some industries too engineers decide how assets are to be used.
The overall results of engineering advances contribute to the welfare of man by furnishing food, shelter and comfort by making work transportation and communication an easier and safer and by prolonging life and making it pleasant and satisfying.
- D. Qualification of a Good Engineer
The following are some of the qualifications of good engineer.
1. High level of mental ability:– An engineer must be intellectually sound mentally alert and able to think fast. He must be smart.
2. Perseverance: He must be able to persevere through problems and difficulty that may arise in the course of his discharging the professional responsibility
3. Initiative: An engineer must show initiative in his approach to problem. He should be able to distinguish between problems requiring engineering solutions and those requiring non-engineering solutions.
4. Ability to get along with people: An engineer should be able to tolerate and allow for difference in people.
5. Bold: He should be able to communicate effectively both in written and spoken form.
6. Honesty: An engineer should be transparently honest.
7. Dependability: The engineer should be dependable.
8. Curiosity: The engineer should be reasonably curious. He should be willing to learn to investigate and also imagine.
9. Ability and willingness to accept responsibility: Willing to take responsibility for his actions, to take responsibility and bear criticism.
10. Good Health: An engineer must be medically fit and sound to be able to discharge the onerous professional responsibilities that he has been called upon to shoulder.
11. Mechanical Aptitude: An engineer should be able to imagine things in space.
It must be emphasized that possessing all the above qualification doesn’t make one absolutely a good engineer but what matters is to be to function effectively in ones professional calling.
- E. Engineer Relationships
As it has been stated above, an engineer deals with other members of Society varying cultural background and different intellectual persuasion. Therefore it is supply essential that an engineer must understand how it relate with these groups of people who are mostly ignorant of the profession.
Relationship with Non-Technological Oriented People
The relationship of an engineer with non-technically, oriented people usually border on the following:
1. Awe: Non-technologically oriented people are usually awed by the presence of engineering practitioners. They give respect to engineer because they know little about profession.
2. Envy: Most intellectuals particularly of other professions tend to envy engineers. This may probably be strategic nature of their job.
3. Administration: Non-technologically oriented people admire the achievement of engineers.
Relationship with Elites
1. Respect: The elite’s in the society respect the engineer because of what he stands for because of his role in nation building, defense and security.
2. Criticism: Most elite’s criticize engineers as a result of lack of understanding of multiplicity of engineering specialization for example it is not uncommon’ to hear the elites criticizing a civil engineer for not being able to repaid his call himself. Also most elite’s criticize engineers saying that they only bear the name, thus they ignore the fact that the organization of society demands specialization.
3. Unfair Comparison: They also make the foolish mistake of comparing engineers in Nigeria with their courtier parts in Europe and American. By so doing they forget the fact that engineering practice in Nigeria is still less than fifty years where as in Britain it is over two hundred years and in America it is over one hundred fifty years in practice.
- F. Relationship with Engineers
The relationship of engineers with scientists is that of partnership. Scientists . propound theories while engineers work them and make life easy for mankind. Scientist makes laws and adds to the store of verified or systematized knowledge but the engineers bring this knowledge to bear in practical problems.
- G. Engineers in Organization
All the task of engineering take place in an organization. Poor organization can cause a lot of damage in engineering work. Engineering itself has a lot of effect on organization. It has been discovered that most engineers rise to the apex of their organization as manages/chief executives in their careers. These categories of engineers should be able to manage responsibility and must be aware of the implication of engineering decision
- H. Executive Engineers
Certain properties are essential for success as an executive in an organization such as: •
1. He must know what is, going on in that organization.
2. He must know what is happening in all parts of the organization.
3. He should have priority i.e. learn to put first things
4 An executive engineer must not be excited or confused of engineering emergency.
5. He should make clear cut decision having all the information and all the facts and read to utilize experience.
6 He should take a definite position
7 Make a suitable preparation before announcing major decisions and policies
8 He should not have the feelings that he can never be wrong
- I. Responsibilities of an Engineer
The council for Registration of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) a body changed with the responsibility of regulating engineering behavior practice in this nation issue a code of conduct to regulate engineers behavior and relationships. The code of conduct is divided into six sections and requires a registered engineer, in discharging the responsibilities to uphold and enhance the honour and dignity of the engineering profession and shall at all times act in strictly judicial manner as a faithful agent or trustee of his client or as officer arbiterbetweenthe contractor and the client.
- J. Responsibilities of Registered Engineer to the Profession
Section 1: Deals with the responsibility of a registered engineer to the profession. This deals with the requirements that the profession demands from its members. For example
Sub-Section 2: State that A Registered Engineer should satisfy himself in the best of his ability, that the enterprise with which he becomes identified are to legitimate character. If after becoming associated with an enterprise in good faith. he finds it to be
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